Longitudinal Bidirectional Associations Between Personality and Becoming a Leader

Introduction

The relationship between personality and leadership has been a central question in organizational psychology for decades. Traditional approaches have often focused on how personality traits predispose individuals to become leaders or influence leadership effectiveness. However, recent theoretical developments and methodological advances have highlighted the importance of viewing this relationship as bidirectional and dynamic over time.

Personality traits are relatively stable patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (McCrae & Costa, 2003). When individuals assume leadership roles, they encounter experiences, challenges, and responsibilities that may gradually shape and refine their personality characteristics. This creates a complex interplay where personality influences leadership emergence, while leadership experiences further shape personalitya phenomenon often termed the "corresponsive principle" (Roberts, Walton, & Bogg, 2005).

This review synthesizes research examining these longitudinal bidirectional associations, providing insights into how personality and leadership co-develop across the lifespan. Understanding these dynamics has important implications for leadership selection practices, development programs, and theories of personality change.

Personality Traits Associated with Leadership

The Five Factor Model (FFM) of personalityoften called the Big Fiveprovides a comprehensive framework for examining personality traits relevant to leadership (Judge, Bono, et al., 2002). The five dimensions include:

Meta-analyses consistently identify extraversion and conscientiousness as particularly predictive of leadership emergence and effectiveness (Judge, Bono, et al., 2002). Individuals higher in extraversion tend to be more visible and confident in group settings, while those higher in conscientiousness demonstrate the reliability and goal-orientation valued in leadership roles.

From Personality to Leadership: Predicting Leadership Emergence

Longitudinal studies examining personality as a predictor of leadership emergence have consistently found that personality traits measured early in life or career predict later leadership attainment. For example, in a 50-year longitudinal study, Stogdill (1948) found that childhood personality traits predicted adult leadership status. More recent studies have identified similar patterns across various contexts.

In educational settings, personality traits measured before individuals assume leadership roles predict later leadership positions. Guastello and Guastello (1998) found that high school students higher in extraversion and conscientiousness were more likely to emerge as leaders in college organizations. Similarly, in military academies, trait measures taken at entry predict later officer promotions (Judge, Bono, et al., 2002).

In organizational contexts, Riggio (1987) demonstrated that managers rated higher on the Leadership Potential Scale, which assesses traits such as social intelligence, emotional expressiveness, and interpersonal sensitivity, were more likely to be promoted to leadership positions over a five-year period. These findings support the theoretical position that stable personality characteristics predispose individuals to both aspire to and attain leadership roles.

"The accumulated evidence suggests that personality traits are not merely correlates of leadership but play a causal role in leadership emergence processes. Individuals with certain dispositions are more likely to seek leadership positions, be selected for them, and succeed in them" (Judge, Bono, et al., 2002, p. 779).

From Leadership to Personality: Leadership Experiences Shaping Traits

Perhaps more intriguing is evidence demonstrating that leadership experiences can shape personality development over time. Roberts and colleagues (2003) found that individuals who moved into managerial positions showed increases in traits related to social dominance, agreeableness, and conscientiousness over a nine-year period compared to those who did not assume such roles.

One mechanism explaining these changes is the "social investment" principle, which suggests that investing in social roles such as leadership provides consistent patterns of environmental feedback that facilitate personality change (Roberts & Wood, 2006). Leadership roles typically require individuals to develop more controlled patterns of behavior, increase their social influence, and expand their interpersonal skills.

Study	Sample	Duration	Key Findings
Roberts et al. (2003)	Young adults	9 years	Leadership experience predicted increases in social dominance and conscientiousness
Specht et al. (2011)	Germans aged 16-89	4 years	Work role changes, including promotions, associated with personality trait changes
Sutin et al. (2009)	Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging	Variable (7-12 years)	Leadership at work associated with increases in openness and extraversion

Specifically, leadership responsibilities may promote the development of:

Bidirectional Associations: Dynamic Interplay Over Time

The most sophisticated understanding of the personality-leadership relationship comes from studies specifically designed to test bidirectional effects using advanced statistical methods such as cross-lagged panel models. These studies assess personality and leadership at multiple time points, allowing researchers to examine how each influences the other over time.

Zimmerman et al. (2017) conducted a cross-lagged analysis using a sample of college students over four years, measuring personality traits and leadership involvement biennially. They found reciprocal effects between extraversion and leadership experiences. Higher extraversion predicted greater likelihood of attaining leadership positions, which in turn predicted increases in extraversion over time. However, they found no significant reciprocal relationships between other Big Five traits and leadership.

In organizational contexts, Bono and Judge (2004) examined personality and leadership emergence across two time points separated by three years among managers. They found that leadership emergence predicted increases in conscientiousness and social potency (a facet of extraversion), while initial levels of these traits predicted later leadership emergence. These bidirectional effects remained significant even after controlling for age, education, and other demographic factors.

These findings support the corresponsive principle, suggesting that leadership experiences both reflect and reinforce personality traits relevant to leadership performance. Over time, this creates a positive feedback loop wherein predisposing traits lead to leadership experiences, which further develop those same traits, creating cumulative advantage.

Theoretical Frameworks Explaining the Associations

Several theoretical frameworks help explain the mechanisms underlying these bidirectional relationships:

The Social Investment Principle

According to this principle, personality traits change in response to sustained investment in social roles (Roberts & Wood, 2006). Leadership roles provide structured expectations and responsibilities that shape behavioral patterns. Through consistent enactment of role-appropriate behaviors, initially effortful actions become internalized as trait characteristics. For example, the requirement to maintain composure during crises may gradually transform a naturally anxious individual into someone who demonstrates greater emotional stability.

The Cognitive Social Learning Framework

This framework emphasizes how expectations, self-regulation, and social reinforcement mediate personality development (Bandura, 2001). Leadership positions provide new reference groups and standards for appropriate behavior. As leaders receive reinforcement for certain behaviors, they develop more positive self-concepts in relevant domains, which then become manifested as trait changes. For instance, a leader consistently praised for strategic thinking may come to view themselves as analytical, enhancing openness to experience.

The Transactional Model of Personality

This model posits that personality emerges from continuous transactions between individuals and their environments (Caspi & Shiner, 2006). Leadership roles represent particularly influential environmental contexts that provide new opportunities, challenges, and feedback. Leaders who actively shape their environments and seek new experiences may show greater personality development than passive leaders. This framework helps explain why some leaders experience substantial personality change while others remain relatively stable.

Boundary Conditions and Moderating Factors

The strength and nature of bidirectional associations between personality and leadership may vary across several contextual and individual factors:

Leadership Context: The type of leadership role influences which traits develop through experience. For example, military leadership roles may strengthen traits like conscientiousness and emotional stability more strongly than creative leadership roles in arts organizations, which might instead enhance openness and extraversion.

Leadership Duration: Short-term leadership experiences may produce temporary behavioral changes, while sustained leadership positions over years or decades are more likely to influence more stable personality characteristics. Longitudinal research suggests that trait changes following role transitions often stabilize after approximately two years of sustained role enactment.

Individual Differences in Plasticity: Some individuals may be more susceptible to leadership-induced personality change than others. People higher in trait plasticityoften assessed through openness to experiencetend to show greater trait change in response to new roles (Roberts et al., 2006).

Leadership Success: Successful leadership experiences, validated through promotions, recognition, or effective goal attainment, may reinforce personality traits associated with that success. In contrast, leadership failures may undermine confidence in certain trait domains, potentially leading to different patterns of personality development.

Implications for Leadership Development

Understanding the bidirectional relationship between personality and leadership has several practical implications for leadership development practice:

Selecting for Development Potential: While personality traits predict leadership emergence, organizations should consider which traits indicate potential for growth through leadership experience rather than just current fit. Leaders showing openness to experience and intellectual curiosity are more likely to develop the adaptive traits needed for senior leadership over time.

Designing Development Experiences: Development programs can be intentionally designed to facilitate desirable personality changes. Stretch assignments, international rotations, and cross-functional team leadership can promote increases in specific traits such as openness to experience, emotional stability, and conscientiousness.

Trajectory-Based Development: Rather than viewing leadership development as acquiring discrete skills, it should be conceptualized as facilitating a developmental trajectory where experiences both leverage and build leadership-relevant traits. This suggests longer development cycles with spaced interventions allowing for trait consolidation.

Assessment Across Time: Personality assessment shouldn't be treated as a one-time event but rather as part of an ongoing developmental conversation. Leaders can benefit from periodic feedback and assessment to recognize and appreciate their own personality development through leadership experiences.

Conclusion

The relationship between personality and leadership is fundamentally bidirectional and dynamic. Personality traits influence who becomes a leader and how effectively they lead, while leadership experiences, in turn, shape personality development over time. This reciprocal relationship creates a developmental spiral wherein predisposing traits lead to leadership experiences that further develop those same characteristics.

Recent longitudinal research using advanced analytic methods has provided compelling evidence for these bidirectional associations, particularly for traits such as extraversion, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience. These findings align with theoretical frameworks such as the social investment principle and the corresponsive principle of personality development.

Understanding these dynamics enhances our theoretical knowledge of both personality development and leadership emergence and provides practical guidance for leadership selection and development. Future research should continue to explore the specific mechanisms through which leadership experiences facilitate personality change, the boundary conditions moderating these effects, and how these processes operate across diverse cultural contexts.

Ultimately, recognizing the bidirectional nature of personality and leadership relationships encourages us to view leadership development as a transformative process that goes beyond skill acquisitioncapable of reshaping who leaders become as well as what they can do.

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